There are thirteen national and ethnic minorities recognised by Polish law. They constitute between 3 and 4% of the Polish population. According to the Act on National and Ethnic Minorities and on the Regional Language, Poland officially recognises nine national minorities (Belarusian, Czech, Lithuanian, German, Armenian, Russian, Slovak, Ukrainian and Jewish minorities), four ethnic minorities (Karaim, Lemko, Roma and Tatar communities) and the Kashubian community using a regional language. In addition, some areas of Pomorskie voivoideship are inhabited by the Kashubian community, speaking the regional language. Polish law defines in detail the rights of national and ethnic minorities.
Article 35 of the Polish Constitution ensures that national and ethnic minorities retain freedom to practice their own traditions and customs, and to use their national language.
The National and Ethnic Minorities and Regional Languages Act was adopted by the Polish Parliament on 6th January 2005. This is the first legal document that gives a precise definition of national and ethnic minorities in Poland. This Act describes “national minorities” as those groups who identify themselves with an established country/nation i.e., Germans, Ukrainians, Jews etc. It also defines “ethnic minorities” as those who do not have their own country – those who are state-less such as the Roma people. Other points of the legal definition are common for both types of minorities.
Public debate concerning minority rights increasingly includes questions related to migration, integration and the status of newer migrant communities. Discussions concern the limits of the current legal framework, which is based primarily on historical minorities traditionally present on the territory of Poland. Since 2022, issues related to the integration of refugees and migrants, especially from Ukraine, became more visible in social, educational and cultural policies. After the outbreak of the war, Poland introduced a special law (“special act”) concerning Ukrainian citizens fleeing the war. It granted broad rights to people who arrived in Poland from February 24, 2022 onward.
The main rights included: i.e. legal stay in Poland without the immediate need to obtain a visa or residence permit and Issuance of a PESEL number with UKR status.
Since 2022, Poland has also introduced measures aimed at the cultural and social inclusion of Ukrainians who arrived because of the war.
These measures included:
- Access to Polish schools and universities for Ukrainian children and students.
- Additional Polish language classes and integration programs.
- Employment support and vocational training to help Ukrainians enter the labor market.
- Psychological and social assistance for families affected by the war.
- Support from local governments, NGOs, and community organizations for integration into local communities.
- Access to cultural institutions, libraries, sports activities, and community events.
- Programs encouraging cooperation between Polish and Ukrainian communities to reduce discrimination and social exclusion.
Many cities in Poland created multicultural initiatives, including:
- intercultural assistants in schools,
- information points in Ukrainian,
- integration centers,
- free legal and administrative assistance.
The European Union also financed projects supporting the long-term integration of Ukrainian refugees into education, employment, healthcare, and public life.
Although many support mechanisms remain in place, after 2025–2026 some emergency measures began transitioning into regular migration and integration policies.
The German minority continues to maintain parliamentary representation and minority communities remain active primarily through local governments, cultural organisations and educational institutions. Other communities have their representatives in local governments. In a few communes in various regions of the country, German and Lithuanian obtained a status of “auxiliary languages” and public information is published both in Polish and German or Lithuanian.
Questions concerning equality, discrimination and the rights of minorities and LGBTQ+ communities remain important elements of public debate in Poland. In recent years, many controversial anti-LGBT resolutions adopted by local governments were withdrawn or lost practical significance following criticism from courts, civil society organisations, European institutions and changes in local political priorities. Contemporary discussions increasingly focus on anti-discrimination standards, social inclusion and the role of cultural and educational institutions in promoting democratic values and diversity.
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